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The Anglo-Saxons

Book by Marc Morris. This book covers the history of the Anglo-Saxons, from their arrival to the British Isles in the 4th century with the fall of the Roman empire to 1066, when William the Conqueror of Normandy invaded.

Many of the chapters focuses on one individual (mostly kings or powerful religious leaders) and tells the history of the time from that vantage point.

Chapter 1 - The Ruin of Brittain

This covers the 4th and 5th centuries, the decline of the Roman empire in the British Isles.

The people living under Roman rule in England (Roman Brittania) were the Brittons. The tribes living north of Hadrian’s wall were the Picts. There were also the Scots and Attacottis living somewhere in the British Isles. The author says they were in Ireland but this seems disputed. In any case, all these “barbarians” were constantly attacking Roman Brittain.

Unpaid army and constant invasion led to a revolt against the Western Roman empire, first by Magnus Maximus in 383 and then by Constantine in 406. Saxons from Germany were hired to fight against the Scots and Picts. These mercenaries eventually revolted, raided the country and settled there. Other Germanic tribes such as the Jutes and the Angles were also part of the invasion and settlement, thus starting the history of the Anglo-Saxons.

The Brittons resisted invasion in places like Wales. One particular battle is noteworthy: the Battle at Badon Hill which led to the legent of King Arthur (he was a Britton). I didn’t know that the Welsh are the cultural descendants of the Brittons and the Welsh language is derived from the British language.

Interesting bits:

• Hoards are barometers of unstable times. People hiding their valuables for retrieval later.
• Very little historical documentation survive from the times. A lot of what is known come from a few texts such Venerable Bede’s the Ecclesiastical history of the English people.
• One interesting observation is how little of Britton language survived into English.
• The author claims that only about 30 words existed in old English. Some hypothesis include mass migrations and genocide, conquerors didn’t find value in adapting to the culture like the Romans had done.

Chapter 2 - War-Wolves and Ring-Givers

This covers the 6th and 7th century, the chaotic times where the Germanic colonizers were struggling for power and kingdoms were amalgamating.

There seemed to be a few outstanding kindoms during this time: East Anglia, Kent, Northumbria (Bernicia), Sussex, Wessex. The kingdom of Kent was one of the richest, and was led by king Æthelbert.

During this time Pope Gregory I sent Augustine of Canterbury to convert the pagan Anglo-Saxons to Christianism. Æthelberht was the first English kind to convert, and gave land in Canterbury for the construction of the St Augustine’s Abbey.

East Anglia. Rædwald was the king of East Anglia and likely the one buried in the massive site of Sutton Hoo (included the helmet) with a ship that has now desintrgrated. Ship burials suggests connection to Sweeden.

Northumbria. Æthelfrith was king of Northumbria, and was killed in a battle against Rædwald, from East Anglia. His brother-in-law Eadwine took over, and the royal family fled. Oswald, Æthelfrith’s second son, went on exile in Ireland. Eadwine was eventually defeated by the Cadwallon (king of the Britton kingdom of Gwynedd), so Oswald returned from exile, defeated Cadwallon and became king of Northumbria.

Interesting bits:

• Tolkien was professor of Anglo-Saxon and that Lord of the Rings was inspired by Beowulf.
• Cities named “ing” (people of), “ingham” (dwellings of people of) start appearing at this time
• The word “king” comes from the Old English “cyning” (the son of a kin)
• The word “lord” comes from the Old English “hlaford” (bread giver). Sussex and Wessex are derived from South and Western Saxons

Chapter 3 - God’s Chosen Instrument (7th century)

Focuses on the life of the religious Wilfrid (633 - 709), who had a big influence in spreading Christianity in England, but was a controversial figure. The focus is mostly on the kingdom of Northumbria.

Wilfrid was from the kingdom of Northumbria. When Oswald had been exiled in Ireland he converted to Christianism and later found a monastery in Lindisfarne (a remote island), in the Irish tradition. Wilfrid studied at Lindisfarne, but after a visit to Rome, he changed to the Rome tradition.

Oswald was later killed in battle and succeeded by his brother Oswiu. There was a disagrement over when Easter should be celebrated (Roman vs Irish tradition). A gathering (synod) was called in Norhumbria (Whitby) in 664, and it ruled in favor of the Roman tradition, of which Wilfrid was a proponent.

Oswiu died and his son Ecgfrith came into power. He had a beef Wilfrid and got him exiled in Sussex. After losing against a battle the Picts, Ecgfrith died, his younger brother Aldfrith came to power and and Wilfrid was allowed back.

Interesting bits:

• The word “monk” from the Greek “monos” (single)
• The word “abbot” from Aramaic “abba” (father)
• The word “Easter” came from the pagan goddess Eostre
• Monasticism started in Egypt in 3rd century and eventually spread to Ireland. Was done via St. Patrik.
• The churches at this time were open to only very few worshippers - but not as closed as monasteries - so a term used is the old English minster.

Chapter 4 - An English Empire? (8th century)

This chapter focuses on Offa (?-796), the king of Mercia. It highlights the dominance of Mercia over the other Anglo-Saxons kingdoms.

Not much is known about Offa. He left behind some monumental construction, the Offa’s Dyke - a long ditch stretching along the England-Wales border. The purpose is not known, but the author speculates it was a defense mechanism against the Brittons.

During his lifetime as king of Mercia, Offa also conquered Kent, Sussex and East Anglia, becoming the first monarch to have a hold of a considerable chunk of England (except Northumbria), hence the title of the chapter.

There are some historical documents mentioning Offa in continental Europe. Particularly interesting is his relationship with Charlemagne. Charlemagne wanted his son to marry one of Offa’s daughters, but Offa wanted his son to marry a Charlemagne’s daughter. This led to some embargoes on both sides that was eventually resolved.

Interesting bits:

• Wales comes from the Germanic “walas” (foreigner), and was used to refer to all Brittons.
• London fell in disrepair after the Romans. Missionaries from Rome liked it because of the connection to Romans and could reuse ruins for building.

Chapter 5 - Storm from the North (9th century)

This chapter focuses on the early Vikings raids during the 9th century.

Around 820 there were 4 major kingdoms: Mercia, Northumbria, East Anglia and Wessex. Mercia dominance declined while Wessex rose in power.

Mercia. Offa’s son, Ecgfrith, died shortly after Offa. Some Coenwulf took the throne in 796, despite not being part of the royal lineage. Coenwulf lost East Anglia, died in 821. His brother Ceolwulf I ruled shortly until deposed by Beornwulf in 823, also of unknow lineage. During Beornwulf reign Mercia lost its supremacy among the other kingdoms. Beornwulf died in 826. There was a succession of rulers: Ludeca reigned until 827, Wiglaf until 839, Beorhtwulf until 852, Burgred until 874 and Ceolwulf II until 879, when it went under Viking rule (Danelaw).

Wessex. Ecgberht reigned from 802-839. He conquered territory including Kent, Mercia and Northumbria but the last 2 didn’t last. We won a decisive battle at Ellandun in 825. His son Æthelwulf reigned until 858. On his death the Wessex kingdom was split beteween his sons: Æthelbald got Wessex and Æthelberht got Kent. Æthelbald died in 860, so Wessex was unified again under Æthelberht. Æthelberht died in 865 and was succeeded by his brother Æthelred, who ruled until 871. He was succeeded by his son Alfred (which is the focus of the next chapter).

East Anglia. was under control of Mercia since Offa’s time and only got independence back in 825. It got protection from Ecgberht of Wessex. In 865 it was invaded by the Vikings and subsequently controlled by them.

Northumbria. was the unification of Deira (South) and Bernicia (North). Deira was incorporated into Viking rule in 867. Bernicia fell into the rule of Scotland.

Vikings vs. Christianity. This chapter discusses the raid of the Vikings on the Lindsfarne monastery. In general Vikings targeted religious sites because these were not well defendent and housed relics. The author mentions a possibility that, because Charlemagne had killed many Saxons (in Saxonia) on grounds of their paganism, the raids could have been retribution against Christianity.

The Great Heathen Army. The Vikings formed large contingent with aims to conquer England - they defeated East Anglia and Northumbria and established the Danelaw. Mercia and Wessex who joined forces to defend with losses and victories here and there.

Interesting bits:

• The Vikings weren’t called this name by the contemporaneous people
• Anglo-Saxons and Vikings shared ancestry and culture.

Chapter 6 - King Alfred (9th century)

Focuses on King Alfred the Great (849-899).

Alfred was the king of Wessex. He fought constantly against the Vikings, who had settled in East Anglia and then started occuping Northumbria and Mercia. Unable to win decisively, Alfred made peace treaties with them, which probably involved the former paying tribute.

After a raid into Wessex, Alfred had to flee to the woods, but was able to mount a comeback and defeated the viking leader Guthrum, forcing him to convert to Christianity and retreat to East Anglia. In 866 they made a treatyand split Mercia in two: the western part (including London) went to Alfred and the eastern part to Guthrum.

Alfred setup a chain of fortress cities, burhs (which became borough), as a defensive mechanism against Vikings. Another of Alfred’s accomplishments was promoting the literacy for men and in the process making the English language mainstream.

Chapter 7 - Imperial overstretch (10th century)

Edward the Elder was Alfred’s son and became king of Wessex after his father’s death in 899. With his older sister Æthelflæd they conquered Mercia, got submission from East Anglia and most of Northumbria from the Vikings. He died in 924.

Upon his death, his son Æthelstan, became king of Mercia, while his half-brother Ælfweard became king of Wessex, but died (possibly assassinated) shortly after Edward. Æthelstan eventually became king of Wessex too. He took the throne of Northumbria and submission of Wales in 927 and submission from Scots in 934, and is regarded as the most powerful of all English kings before the Norman conquest.

Interesting bits:

• Places ending in -by have Norwegian (Viking) origin

Chapter 8 - One nation under God (mid 10th century)

This chapter focuses on an individual: the bishop Dunstan. After Æthelstan, there were only weak monarchs and little is known about them. Monasticism had been falling in Europe. Dunstan was a influential reformist monk.

Æthelstan died without heirs, so his half-brother Edmund I became the king and died in 946. His younger brother Eadred succeeded him. Eadred also died without heirs, so the eldest son of Edmund I, Eadwig became king in 955, but there was a faction that favored his brother Edgar. They divided the kindgom with Eadwid reigning over Wessex and Edgar over Mercia and Northumbria. Eadwig died in 959 and Edgar became the king. He dided in 975.

Edmund I appointed Dunstan abbot of Glastonbury. Eadwig did major purges including Dunstan who fled to Flanders. Once Edgar came to throne, he restored Dunstan and became archbishop of Canterbury. Dunstan died in 988.

Chapter 9 - The Ill Counselled King

After Edgar’s death, his son Edward the Martyr was chosen king. Edgar had Edward with a woman before he married the queen Ælfthryth. The son of the queen was Athelred, which was favored by some factions. Edgar only reigned for 3 years before he was killed in 978.

Æthelred the Unready became king in 979 as a teenager. He married Ælfgifu of York in the 980s and then to Emma of Normandy in 1002. She was the sister of Richard I of Normandy (great-grandfather of William the Conqueror).

Æthelred had to deal with Viking raids and was criticized for never leading battles in person. In 1002, he ordered all viking mercenaries to be killed, known as the St Brice’s day massacre. The Danish king Swein had aims of conquering England - likely invited by people unhappy with Æthelred. Æthelred conceded defeat and fled to Normandy, the kingdom of his wife’s Emma brother, in 1013.

Swein died in 1014 and succeeded by his son Cnut. Æthelred went back and defeated Cnut, with the help of mercenaries Olaf Haraldson (future king of Norway) and Thorkell the tall.

Æthred died in 1016. Edmund Ironside reigned briefly, but was defeated by Cnut became king of England until 1035.

Interesting bits:

• Widows used to go to monastery to avoid being forced to marry
• Normady was named for North man! Was ruled by ex-vikings for a while.

Chapter 10 - Twilight

Cnut married the widow of Arthelred, Emma of Normandy and died in 1035. He had son with Emma, Harthacnut, who was then ruling Denmark and a son with Ælfgifu, Swein (like this grandfarther), who was ruling Norway.

There was a debate on who should succeed. Harthacnut or Harold (Swein’s younger brother, since Swein had died). Harthacnut took his time in Denmark, and since Harold was in England he was elected king. In parallel there was this English noble, Godwin who had alied himself with Cnut and was made earl of Wessex, and was increasingly gaining power and supported Harthacnut.

Meanwhile Emma tried to bring the sons she had with Æthelred to power: Edward and Alfred, who were living in Normandy. Alfred paid visit to England but was ambushed and killed by Godwin.

Harold died in 1040, so Harthacnut came from Denmark at become an unpopular king. Nobles convinced him to share kingdom with Edward the Confessor (the other son of Emma and Æthelred). Harthacnut dies in 1042, likely poisoned.

Edward the Confessor was a pious king, but lacked connection with the nobles. He built the Westminster abbey. He also partnered with Godwin by marrying his daughter Edith, but they had no children. Edward wanted his cousin William of Normandy to succeed him. Godwin had other plans.

After falling out of grace with the king, Godwin fled to Flanders and Edward sent his wife Edith to a nunery. Godwin invades England and restores power in 1052. Edward continues as king but as puppet of Godwin.

Distant heir of Edward Ironside, Edgar Ætheling was living in exile in Hungary - considered for succession, but Godwin wanted his son, Harold Godwinson, to become king. When Edward died in 1066, Harold was coronated as king.

Harold exiled his brother Tostig Godwinson, who then allied with the king of Norway, Harald Hardrada, to invade England. Harold managed to defeat them, but this gave opportunity for William the conqueror to invade from Normandy.

Conclusion

The conclusion covers a brief period of the aftermath of the Norman conquest. About 100,000 people died of famine after punitive action by Normans in 1069, dubbed the Harrying of the North.

The Normans replaced most of the Anglo-Saxon nobility, and fred most slaves. Contrary to Vikings, the Normans preserved a lot of texts such as Beowulf and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.

William commissioned the Doomsday book, a survey of the entire kingdom.

My review

I bought this book during a work trip to London. It’s well organized and engaging.

Overall 5/5.